Arisaka Evolution: the Transformation of the Japanese Type 99 Rifle

Every major power of World War II had a signature infantry weapon. For the Americans, it was the M1 Garand, while the British had the Lee-Enfield rifles. The Japanese had the Type 99 Arisaka rifle. The 99 bore a few distinct features to set it apart from other rifles, and each rifle was marked specifically based on its manufacturer. Like many other weapons of the time, the Type 99 arose out of modifications from another weapon—in this case, the Type 38 rifle—and adjustments were continually made throughout the war. Unlike many other nations, however, the quality and design elements of the Type 99 actually deteriorated over the course of the war rather than improving, mostly due to the significant loss of resources and skilled labor in Japan as the war drew to an end. The story of the Type 99 illustrates the history of Japan itself as the empire went from new world power to terrifying imperial force to nation on the edge of defeat.

Type 38

The first of the modern rifles used in World War II—the Type 38—was developed by Major Kijiro Nambu in 1905, or the 38th year of the Meiji era. Nambu based his rifle on a design by Nariakira Arisaka, a prolific Japanese arms developer whose name remained associated with Nambu’s rifles even though he was not involved in their production. The Type 38 was a long rifle, almost as tall as the average Japanese soldier, but they were better protected than the old Type 30s against jamming due to dirt and mud. It was also a simpler design that was easier to strip down and clean. These were the rifles in use when the Japanese Army invaded Manchuria and began seizing power in mainland Asia. The Japanese ramped up military production as the conflict continued, and soon thousands of rifles were being produced from arsenals across the home islands, and even some on the mainland, as well. Every arsenal was given certain series numbers, with 99,999 rifles produced within each series, and the series number was stamped next to the serial number and the arsenal’s individual marks on the receiver. These identifiers helped to track these rifles, and modern historians use these to trace the changes and developments in rifle production across the years.

Type 99

As the Japanese continued to fight on mainland China, and as the clouds of war with the United States began to darken, the Japanese military recognized the need for adjustments to their primary infantry weapon. The weight and length of the 38s was too much for the average soldier, and Nambu worked on redesigning his earlier work. The result was the Type 99 rifle, which included many familiar elements of the Type 38, with a few key differences. The 99 was a shorter rifle with a more powerful 7.7mm cartridge to match the 7.7mm of the Japanese heavy machine guns, streamlining supply logistics for munitions. Antiaircraft wings were added to the Type 99's elevation measure, although the idea of a rifle shooting down aircraft was hopeful at best. A monopod was attached to the underside of the barrel to stabilize the rifle while firing from the prone position.

The new rifles were produced at many of the same factories that produced the Type 38s, receiving the same arsenal marks. Variants of the 99 arose as war broke out with the United States and the rest of the Allies. A longer Type 99 rifle was produced for a brief period to match the size of the Type 38s, but these were quickly done away with in favor of the standard 44-inch rifle. A paratroop version was developed in 1942, which allowed an even easier breakdown of the rifle. Eventually, a sniper variant was also introduced, mounted with a telescopic sight.

The War Worsens

The Type 99 rifles continued to serve the Japanese Army well while they marched across China and into southeastern Asia. Japanese soldiers were well-trained and highly disciplined, and maintained their weapons in excellent condition, as expected of any soldier. But as the empire plunged into a global conflict against most of the world's major military powers, Japan found not only its soldiers but its weaponry diminishing. American submarine warfare wreaked havoc upon Japanese merchant shipping and supplies, aided by intelligence from decrypted Japanese radio traffic. Conscription for Japanese military service took skilled labor from the manufacturing industry, never to be returned as the Japanese fought almost to the last man on islands across the Pacific. Later, the strategic bombing campaigns conducted by the U.S. Army Air Forces further devastated their production capabilities. Manufacture of war goods was dispersed to individual homes in an attempt to compensate for destroyed factories and infrastructure, but this only led to the bombing of civilian quarters where this production took place.

The Last Ditch

To save resources and streamline the production process, several elements of the Type 99 were either simplified or removed altogether. The protective wings on the front sights were eliminated, and the rear sight no longer included the adjustable elevation gauge. The barrel cover at the front of the rifle, which kept soldiers from burning themselves on the hot metal barrel after firing, was removed entirely. The rings used to attach the carrying straps were only bolted with one screw instead of two, and in some very late cases, the rings were replaced by holes with rope strung through rather than a proper carrying strap. Many rifles no longer included the horizontal finger groove along the side of the stock, or if they did, it was a rough cut, not cleanly manufactured like the earlier rifles. A very large lug was used to hold these "last ditch" rifles together, and the end of the action bolts were usually straight rather than the round knobs like before. The safety on the back of the bolt assemblies was simplified and smooth rather than textured, although they operated in much the same way. Even the buttplates were altered, consisting of a piece of wood nailed to the back of the rifle rather than a manufactured metal plate fitted over the back and bolted into place. Some did not bear the markings identifying the rifle models, although they continued to have the series and serial number alongside the manufacturer's mark.

The poor material and production quality of these late-war rifles illustrate the desperate situation Japan faced as the Americans closed in on the Home Islands. On the frontlines, old men and boys with very little training or equipment were pitted against American veteran units backed by the most powerful production capability in the world. While the United States possessed ample resources and capability to turn out more than enough materiel for themselves and still supply their allies, the Japanese struggled to provide their men with even the most basic equipment and resorted to shortcuts and outdated relics from previous wars.

The End

Eventually, Japan was defeated, and during the surrender, thousands of Type 38 and 99 rifles were either surrendered to or captured by the Allies, and many Americans kept these rifles as souvenirs. The imperial chrysanthemum, the symbol of Emperor Hirohito and an indication that these items belong to him, was often filed or gouged off the surrendered rifles, but those that were captured during or after the battle retained this mark. Some of these rifles were brought back to the United States and modified for use as hunting rifles. Others were simply preserved as a souvenir of service or sent home as gifts for loved ones.

Today, Arisaka rifles are valuable collectors items for World War II history enthusiasts, and the markings and design elements help to tell the story of each individual rifle, as well as demonstrating how the nation that created it was faring at the time it was produced. The development of Japanese firearms paints picture of the Japanese military's transformation from a new power to a major contender on the world stage, as well as its subsequent downfall and defeat at the hands of a nation whose production capacity vastly outstripped its own.